Who were the Montgolfier brothers?

Who were the Montgolfier brothers?

The Montgolfier brothers wee Joseph and Etienne two brothers in France who made aviation history with their hot air balloons in 1783. They were convinced that the same kind of heated air which sent pieces of paper wafting up in a chimney from their home fire could also lift men into the air. They succeeded in their experiments in 1783. Their balloon was made of linen lined with paper, and filled with hot air from a straw and wool fire.

Louis XIV and Marie Antoinette witnessed the first flight by living creatures at Versailles when the brothers sent a sheep, a duck, and a rooster into the air in a basket suspended from their balloon. A month later the first person to fly, Pilatre de Rozier went up in a Montgolfier balloon.

How was mercury oxide discovered?

How was mercury oxide discovered?

Mercury oxide was discovered by the French chemist Antoine Laurent Lavosier during his experiments with the element oxygen. Oxygen was discovered in 1774 by Priestly. It was also discovered at about the same time by the Swedish scientist Scheele who called it ‘empyreal’ or ‘fire air’. But Lavosier gave the element its modern name – oxygen.

In addition to repeating the experiment conducted by Priestly, Lavosier carryout out several of his own. In one such experiment, he showed that mercury heated in small amount of oxygen was transformed into a red powder which he called mercury oxide.

What was the Boston Tea Party?

What was the Boston Tea Party?

The Boston Tea Party was the famous incident that sowed the seeds of American War of Independence. The series of events that led to this incident are as follows. Trade in the American colonies was regulated by Great Britain and as such some restrictions were imposed on trade. This led to smuggling by the settlers.

The British tried to reinforce the Navigation Act to control trade, but met with failure. In 1765, the British government passed the Stamp Act according to which all legal documents in America had to have an official stamp. The protest against this by the colonies was so strong that the Act had to be repealed.

In 1767, tax was imposed on tea and other imports to America. Subsequently, most of the taxes were abolished, but the one on tea remained. In 1773, some of the colonists openly demonstrated their objection to this. Dressed up as Red Indians, they boarded British ships in Boston harbour and threw the cases of tea that they carried, into the sea. This incident is known in history as the ‘Boston Tea Party’.

How did America acquire her independence?

How did America acquire her independence?

Trade in American colonies was regulated by Great Britain. These imposed controls annoyed the settlers. There were acts of rebellion, such as The Boston Tea Party, and gradually, this flared into a war in 1775 when shots were fired at Lexington.

Though the British won many battles initially, George Washington appointed by the American Congress inspired the untrained American soldiers to fight for their freedom. The Americans were also aided in their fight by Britain’s enemies in Europe. The Congress issued the Declaration of independence on July 4, 1776. The Declaration renounced loyalty to the British throne and resolved that United Colonies are, and of right, ought to be free and independent States. Finally, General Cornwallis cut off at Yorktown with French ships preventing aid reaching him. He surrendered and fighting ended. America was granted its independence in 1783.

Why is the Industrial Revolution considered a landmark in history?

Why is the Industrial Revolution considered a landmark in history?

The Industrial Revolution may be defined as the application of power-driven machinery to manufacturing. In the eighteenth century (around 1774) all of Western Europe began to industrialize rapidly. In England, the process was most highly accelerated.




By the beginning of the eighteenth century in England, the used of machines in manufacturing was already widespread. In 1762, Mathew Boulton built a factory which employed more than six hundred workers and installed a team engine to supplement power. In 1733, John Kay, a Lancashire mechanic, patented his flying shuttle. James Hargreaves patented a spinning jenny on which one operator could spin many threads simultaneously. Then, in 1779, Samuel Crompton combined jenny and the water frame in a machine known as ‘Crompton’s mule’, which produced quantities of fine, strong yarn.




Electricity was a major factor in the phenomenally rapid industrialization or Britain and Europe. The coming of the railroads greatly facilitated the industrialization of Europe.




The big railway boom in Britain came in the years 1844 to 1847. British success with steam locomotion, however, was enough to encourage the building of railroads in most European countries, often with British capital, equipment and technicians. Railroads became a standard item of British export. The internal combustion engine was developed in Europe before 1900.




At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the steam driven ships appeared on the horizon. The first practical steamship was constructed by an American Robert Fulton in 1907, and soon steamships were routinely crossing the Atlantic.




Communications also saw developments during this period. In 1871, telegraph cable reached from London to Australia; messages could be flashed halfway around the globe in a matter of minutes, speeding commercial transactions.




Alexander Graham Bell in 1876 transmitted the human voice over a wire. The world continued to shrink at a great rate as new means of transport and communication speeded the pace of life with the coming of the Industrial Revolution.

What was James Cook remembered?

What was James Cook remembered?

James Cook is one of the greatest names in the history of exploration. The Endeavour was the ship in which James Cook made his first voyage (1768-71). Cook made three great voyages, in the course of which he discovered many new lands, chartered coastlines. He thus paved the way for the British colonization of Australia and New Zealand

Why was the Battle of Plassey so important?

Why was the Battle of Plassey so important?

The Battle of Plassey, fought between Nawab of Bengal, Siraj Ud Daulah and British East India Company is judged as one the pivotal battles leading to the formation of the British Empire in India. The battle took place on June 23, 1757 at Plassey (Palashi), India.




Bengal had a long standing treaty with the East India Company, who held Calcutta. When Siraj Ud Daulah crowned as new Nawab of Bengal in 1756, he ignored the treaty, and occupied Calcutta. The East India Company responded with an Army led by Robert Clive, which recaptured Calcutta, and then caught up with the Nawab’s Army at the village of Plassey.




Clive had just over 3, 000 troops, of whom 2, 000 were Indian, while the Nawab had 50, 000 men, with French artillery. However, most of the Nawab’s Army were led by traitors who had conspired with British. As a result, the Bengali troops of the Nawab fled the battle offering much resistance, and the British were able to overwhelm the French artillery. Clive had won a famous victory for the loss of between 20 and 70 men.

Who made the first inoculation against the dreaded small pox disease?

Who made the first inoculation against the dreaded small pox disease?

Smallpox was an extremely common disease until the eighteenth century. But it was often a fatal disease, death being sure in most cases. Small pox starts as a rash which develops into blisters. Within a few days, the blisters fester and then start to dry and crack up.


The death rate for this disease was high until a breakthrough was achieved by Lady Mary Wortley in 1717. She noticed that in Turkey, where her husband was the ambassador, they used fluid from the smallpox blisters to protect those who were uninfected. She introduced the practice-variolation (small pox was also known as variola) – to Britain, where it was quickly accepted. Some people did die during the process, but overall the death rate was vastly reduced

Why is Fahrenheit’s thermometer important?

Why is Fahrenheit’s thermometer important?

The mercury thermometer was invented in 1714 by Gabrield Daniel Fahrenheit, a German instrument maker. He also introduced the new temperature scale, known as the Fahrenheit scale after him. The zero on this scale was thirty two degrees below the freezing point of water on the Celsius scale i.e. zero degrees Celsius, and the boiling point of water i.e. hundred degrees Celsius was equal to 212 degrees Fahrenheit.


Mercury was more responsive to temperature changes, did not evaporate, and was therefore, preferable to any other liquid. Calibrated marks on the tube allow the temperature to be read by the length of the mercury within the tube. The end of the thermometer is usually shaped like a bulb. The expansion and contraction of the mercury can be noted by observing the bore of the tube. The space above the mercury was often filled with nitrogen or is a vacuum.


No Mercury


Today, the use of mercury thermometers for medical purposes is often not allowed. However, they are still widely used for meteorological purposes. Some reputed organizations in the world recommend that mercury thermometers not be sued as they are harmful both to the body and to the environment.

When did Scotland become part of Great Britain?

When did Scotland become part of Great Britain?

At the end of the seventeenth century, there was growing dissension in England and Scotland, regarding the relationship between these two countries. William III was more interested in England because of its value to him in his European affairs.


Many people advocated that the two kingdoms should become separate states. William and his advisors were more in favour of an incorporated union, although Scottish feeling was of the opinion that such a union would stifle Scotland even further.


In 1706, Queen Anne set up a commission to draw up a treaty for union. The resultant Act decreed that two countries be united as Great Britain under one parliament and one flag. The trade, religious practices, and law making for Scotland. It became law in May 1707.