Why is the North always marked upper side of a map?

Why is the North always marked upper side of a map?

When you look at a map hanging on the wall, or printed in books, you may noticed that the north is always shown on the upper side. For example, in the map of India, Kashmir, the northernmost state in India, is always on top. In fact, there is no scientific reason behind this practice. We can only assume that it is a practice that has been followed since the art of mapping began.

The ancient Egyptian scientist Ptolemy made the first map. He believed that Egypt was the centre of the world. At the time Egypt, had good relationships with the Mediterranean coast and Greece, which lie to the north of Egypt. So, Ptolemy placed Greece and Mediterranean on the upper side of his map. That is, he drew a map in which the North was above. This style is followed even today. During the time of Crusades, some Army generals drew maps showing east on the upper side. But this practice was short lived, and never became popular universally

Who discovered radium?

Who discovered radium?

The discovery of radium, a radioactive element was one of the most significant discoveries made towards the end of the 19th century. It revolutionized scientific knowledge about the nature of matter, and brought great fame to the young scientist Marie Curie, who discovered it. An ore of uranium, pitchblende, proved to be three or four times as radioactive as uranium oxide. When Madam Curie learnt this, she deduced that some previously unknown element must be present in the mineral to produce this radioactivity. Along with her husband, the French physicist Pierre Curie, Marie searched for this substance. After extensive experimentation with pitchblende, the Curies found a substance with about 900 times the radioactivity of uranium. In December 1898, they proudly announced the existence of a new radioactive element, which they called ‘radium’. They isolated radium into its pure form in 1902. The discovery of radium marked the birth of modern nuclear Physics. It led to the development of radiotherapy, which is used in cancer treatment. Today, there are many other uses for radium as well.

When was the Nobel Prize established?

When was the Nobel Prize established?

Alfred Nobel was a highly successful inventor and industrialist, but an unsuccessful novelist and playwright. He invented dynamite, which had tremendous destructive power.

Alfred Nobel happened to read his own obituary in a newspaper, which described him, as a ‘merchant of death’. Nobel was deeply hurt by this remark. He set aside nearly 94 percent of his immense wealth to create awards for persons for outstanding and path breaking works in Physics, Chemistry, medicine, literature and peacemaking. Nobel died in 1896. The first Nobel prizes were conferred in 1901 by the King of Sweden.

In 1968, the Central Bank of Sweden instituted a prize for Economics in memory of Alfred Nobel. Today the value of the Nobel Prize is about a million dollars. It is without doubt the most coveted academic prize in the whole world.

When were the Olympic Games reintroduced?

When were the Olympic Games reintroduced?

The ancient Olympic Game s evolved out of religious festivals honouring the Greek Gods such as Zeus, the Chief God. These festivals are believed to have dated back to 900 BC. At this time, the Games were held every 4 years, involving one event- a race held over 192 meters. By about 650 BC, the Ancient games were held over five days, involving running, wrestling, the pentathlon, horse riding and chariot racing.

The games continued for over 1000 years before Roman Emperor Theodosius I brought the movement to an end in 393 AD, by banning all Pagan worship, which included the Olympic Games.

In the 1880’s a French historian Pierre de Coubertin formed the idea of a modern revival to the ancient Olympic Games. The idea was publicly launched in 1892, and by 1894 the International Olympic Committee was formed with the idea of staging the games every four years. A new marble stadium was constructed at Athens and the first modern Olympic Games were held in Athens in 1896, four years before the beginning of the 20th century.

What is psycho-analysis?

What is psycho-analysis?

Psychoanalysis is a method for the investigation of human thought processes and behaviour, and for treating nervous disorders. The Father of modern psychoanalysis was an Austrian doctor named Sigmund Freud. He carried out a great deal of research into the physiology of the nervous system, and then set up as a specialist in nervous disorders.

Sigmund Freud gained fame as he cured hysteria through hypnosis, and also treated patients by allowing them to ramble on about anything that came into their mind while in a state of complete relaxation. This method of drawing memories from the unconscious to the conscious mind became known as ‘psycho-analysis’.

Freud had a great many followers, and their work into the subconscious processes of the mind had far reaching effects in changing attitudes to wards the mentally ill. Without doubt, Sigmund Freud, more than any other explorer of the psyche, has shaped the mind of the 20th century.

What are X-rays?

What are X-rays?

At sometime or other, the doctor must have told someone in your family to have an X-ray taken. But do you know what X-rays actually are?

X-rays seem to do the impossible: They see straight through clothing and flesh. That is, they let doctors see straight through human tissue to examine broken bones, cavities and swallowed objects with extraordinary ease.

X-rays are basically the same thing as visible light rays. Both are wavelike forms of electromagnetic energy carried by particles called photons. The difference between X-rays and visible light rays is the energy level of the individual photons. This is also expressed as the wavelength of the rays.

As with many of mankind’s monumental discoveries, X-ray Technology was invented by completely by accident. In 1895, a German physicist name Wilhelm Roentgen made the discovery while experimenting electron beams in a gas discharge tube. Roentgen noticed that a fluorescent screen in his lab started to glow when the electron beam was turned on.

Roentgen placed various objects between the tube and the screen, and the screen still glowed. Finally, he put his hand in front of the tube, and saw the silhouette of his bones projected onto the fluorescent screen!

The most important contributions of X-ray Technology have been in the world of medicine, but X-rays have played a crucial role in a number of other areas as well. X-rays have been pivotal in research involving quantum mechanics theory, crystallography and cosmology. In the industrial world, X-ray scanners are often used to detect minute flaws in heavy metal equipment. (Like plane, jet and rocket, ship bodies).

Is it any wonder then that Roentgen’s work on X-Rays won him the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1901?

Who were known as the French pioneer film makers?

Who were known as the French pioneer film makers?

Don’t you just love watching movies? Well, consider yourself lucky, because if you had lived before 1889, you could never have watched one! It was the great inventor Thomas Alwa Edison who first developed a peep-show machine to show moving pictures. But the men who actually made the films for the peepshow were two Frenchmen, Auguste Lumiere and his brother Louis Luniere. Later they patented a device which would both photograph and show films, and so they are considered to be the pioneers among film makers.

Auguste and Louis Lumiere are credited with the world’s first public film screening on December 28, 1895. They showed approximately ten shot films lasting only twenty minutes inn total. The showing was held in the basement lounge of a restaurant in Paris. It was the very first public demonstration of a device they called the Cinematograph, which effectively functioned as camera, projector and printer all in one.

Their work consisted mainly of moving images from scenes of everyday life. Their film sequence of a train pulling into the station reportedly had audiences screaming and ducking for cover, as they believed that the train itself was about to plow into the theater!

Who adapted radio waves for use in communication?

Who adapted radio waves for use in communication?

The invention of both the telephone and the telegraph in the nineteenth century marked significant advances in communication Technology. However, both these inventions needed the use of wires to connect the people using them. Without wires, the technology could not work.

The discovery of radio waves by the German scientist, Heinrich Hertz was a very important landmark. Radio waves are electromagnetic waves that have a long wavelength. These waves can be longer than a football field of as short as a football, and cannot be seen or heard by humans.

It was the Italian physicist Heinrich Marconi who adapted radio waves for communication. In 1895, he succeeded in transmitting a wireless electronic message over a distance of 2.4 kilometres. Communication without wires had arrived!

Radio waves transmit music, conversations, pictures and data visibly through the air, often over millions of miles-it happens every day in thousands of different ways! They have totally changed society. Whether we are talking about a cell phone, a cordless phone or any one of the thousands of other wireless technologies, all of them use radio waves to communicate

When was the Eiffel Tower built?

When was the Eiffel Tower built?

If you ever get a chance to go to Paris, one of the first places must visit is the Eiffel Tower. It is an iron tower built on the Champ de Mars beside the River Seine in Paris, France. It is the tallest structure in Paris and one of the most visited monuments in the world.

Name of its designer, engineer Gustavo Eiffel, the structure was built between 1887 and 1889 as the entrance arch for the Exposition Universelle, a World fair that marked the centennial celebration of the French Revolution. It was inaugurated on 31 March 1889, and opened on 6th May.

At the time the tower was built, its daring shape shocked many people. Gustavo Eiffel was criticized for the design, but the shape of the tower was determined by mathematical calculation involving wind resistance. The tower soars three hundred metres into the sky, and offers breath taking views of the beautiful city of Paris.

During its lifetime, the Eiffel Tower has also witnessed a few strange scenes, including being scaled by a mountaineer in 1954, and parachuted off in 1984 by two Englishmen. In 1923 a journalist even rode bicycle down from the first level!

Who invented the first motor car?

Who invented the first motor car?

The history of the automobile is very rich. It dates back to the 15th century when Leonardo da Vinci was creating designs and models for transport vehicles.

There are many different types of automobiles – steam, electric and gasoline – as well as countless styles. It is a matter of opinion as to exactly who invented the automobile.

If we had to give credit to one inventor, it would probably be Karl Benz from Germany. The automobile he invented was the forerunner of the ones of today.

By 1860, the gasoline engine had been invented in Europe. In 1885, Karl Benz had introduced the first gasoline powered automobile. His car ran on 3 wheels and looked like a big tricycle with no pedals. It could carry two people. It had a single cylinder engine, and could run at 6.5 km per hour!

Benz built his first four-wheeled car in 1891. Benz & Company, the company started by the inventor, became the world’s largest manufacturers of automobiles by 1900. In 1903, Karl Benz retired from Benz & Company. His designs were already outdated by another inventor, Gottlieb Daimler. He served as a member of the supervisory board of Daimler-Benz AG from 1926, when the company was formed, until his death.

When was the Panama Canal Company founded?

When was the Panama Canal Company founded?

The Panama Canal is a major shipping canal that cuts across the Isthmus of Panama in Central America. It connects the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

Although the concept of a canal near Panama dates back to the early 16th century, the first attempt to construct a canal began in 1880 under French leadership. The Panama Canal Company was founded in 1879, but this attempt failed.

Later, in 1914, the Panama Canal became a reality. Construction of the canal was one of the largest and most difficult Engineering projects ever undertaken. The building of the 77 km canal was plagued by problems, including diseases like malaria and yellow fever as well as land slides. As many 27, 500 workers are estimated to have died during the construction of the canal.

Since its opening, the canal has been enormously successful, and continues to be vital for international shipping. Each year, more than 14,000 ships pass through the canal.

When did Edison invent the phonograph?

When did Edison invent the phonograph?

Don’t you love to listen to your favorite songs on a CD? But if you ask your grandmother she will tell you that when she was a little girl, there were no CDs or audio cassettes. When she wanted to enjoy some music, she would listen to a record on their gramophone. In fact, the phonograph or gramophone was the most common device for playing recorded sound from the 1870s and 1980s.

Thomas Alva Edison, a well known inventor announced the invention of the first phonograph, a device for recording and replaying sound, on November 21, 1878. The phonograph was developed as a result of Thomas Edison’s work on two other inventions, the telegraph and the telephone. Edison’s early phonographs used a revolving cylinder wrapped in tinfoil sheet, which had to be turned by hand.

Sound waves recorded as grooves in the cylinder using an up-and-down motion of the stylus, a type of needle. Mechanical vibrations were created when the operator spoke into a recording tube. These vibrations were transferred as impressions on the tinfoil. When another needle moved along the impressions or grooves, the vibrations that were caused reproduced the voice in the hearing tube.

What was the Battle of Bighorn?

What was the Battle of Bighorn?

You must have studied that when Christopher Columbus discovered America, the land was the home of the Native American Indians, also known as Red Indians. After the Europeans and the British settled in America, the Indians were forced to leave their traditional hunting grounds. They wee confined to reservations.

With the discovery of gold in the West, thousands of new settlers moved in, and they encroached the lands sacred to the Red Indians. The Indians, in turn left their reservations and warfare erupted between the settlers and Indians.

The Indians under the leadership of Chief Sitting Bull, gathered on the banks of the Bighorn River in 1876, determined to fight for the return of the lands. To force the Indians back to the reservations, the American Army dispatched three columns to attack in coordinated fashion, one of which was led by Lt. Colonel George Custer. Custer attacked in haste, but he and his Army were wiped out in 45 minutes! This Battle of Bighorn, fought on June 25 represented the biggest Indian victory. However, the government troops attacked in large numbers, forcing the Indians to surrender.

What was the first telephone message?

What was the first telephone message?

Can you imagine what life would be like without a telephone? Well, till the middle of the nineteenth century, there were no telephones at all! The telephone was invented only in 1876. Although two men, Alexander Graham Bell and Elisha Grey both worked independently on this invention, it is Graham Bell who considered to be the inventor of the telephone.

Alexander graham Bell was born in 1847 in Edinburgh, Scotland. He moved to Ontario, and then to the United States. He settled in Boston, and began his career as an inventor.

The first telephone call was made on March 6th 1876. Bell phoned his assistant who was in another room and said, ‘come here Watson. I want you’. Watson heard the request through a receiver connected to the transmitter designed by Bell, and the beginning of a new era in communication was ushered in. the first telephone system was installed in 1877, in Hartford, Connecticut. Graham Bell later founded the Bell Telephone Company, which grew to be the largest in the world.

Since his death in 1922, the telecommunication industry has undergone an amazing revolution. Today, non-hearing people are able to use a special display telephone to communicate. Fiber optics are improving the quality and speed of data transmission, and Bell’s telephone paved the way for the Information Superhighway.

What was the role of Otto Bismarck in the unification of Germany?

What was the role of Otto Bismarck in the unification of Germany?

During the time of the Roman Empire, Germany consisted of many different tribes that formed almost 300 states. These states later formed a part of Napoleon’s empire too. By the time Napoleon was defeated, there were 39 states. The most powerful of these were Austria and Prussia.

There were many efforts to unify Germany after Napoleon, and the man who was finally responsible for doing so was Otto Bismarck. After serving as Prussia’s Ambassador to Russia and France, he became ‘Prime Minister of Prussia’ in 1862. From 1867 on, he was Chancellor of the North German Confederation. When the Franco Prussian was broke out in 1870, Bismarck’s shrewd planning resulted in a decisive victory for Prussia, His efforts to unify Germany became a reality on January 18, 1871. The German Empire was proclaimed on that day with Bismarck as its Chancellor.

Bismarck was undoubtedly one of the significant political figures of modern Germany. Such was his reputation for determination and toughness that he was called the ‘Iron Chancellor’. His legacy to the next generation was 20 years of peace in Europe, and a united Germany.

What was the reason for the building of the Transcontinental Rail Road?

What was the reason for the building of the Transcontinental Rail Road?

A transcontinental railroad, linking America from coast to coast had been dreamt of as early as 1836. But it was the American Civil was that underlined the need for such a transcontinental rail road. In 1862, President Abraham Lincoln signed an act that would turn this dream into reality.

The building of the railway required enormous feats of labour in the crossing of plains and high mountains. The Union Pacific Railroad and Central Pacific Railroad, the two privately chartered federally backed enterprises, built the line westward and eastward respectively.

The greatest historical event in transportation on the continent occurred at Promontory, Utah, on May 10, 1869, as the Union Pacific tracks joined those of the Central Pacific Railroad. A golden spike was driven to mark the joining of the tracks.

The Transcontinental Rail Road created a nation-wide mechanized transportation. It played an important role in the development of the American West, and ushered in an age of modern transportation. America was now joined from the Pacific to the Atlantic Ocean with bands of steel!

When was the Suez Canal opened?

When was the Suez Canal opened?

If you look at the map of the world, you will see that a narrow strip of land known as isthmus, separates the Mediterranean Sea from the Red Sea. This meant that ships sailing between Europe and Asia had to go all the way around Africa to reach their destination – a very long way indeed. Goods were also sometimes offloaded from ships and carried over the land between the Mediterranean and Red Sea, which was also very inconvenient and costly.

In the nineteenth century France made plans to dig a canal through the isthmus linking the Mediterranean and Red Sea. this scheme was the brainchild of a French engineer name Ferdinand de Lesseps. In 1860, work on the canal started but it was a difficult and costly project, that was carried out in the face of much opposition.

The triumphant opening of the Suez Canal was performed by French Empress Eugenie on 17th November 1869 in the Imperial yacht Aigle. This was the crowning glory of de Lessep’s achievement. The first ship to follow the yacht Aigle through the canal was the British P&O liner Delta.

The world, especially the French nation, considered the Suez Canal a symbol of the times. It was often compared as a gigantic achievement that rivaled the building of the Great Pyramid, yet benefiting all mankind by being freely open to the ships of all nations.

How did Japan attain the technological level of Europe and the United States?

How did Japan attain the technological level of Europe and the United States?

Japan had been ruled since 660 BC by a succession of Emperors who called themselves ‘Tenshi’ or ‘the sons of heaven’. Japan was completely isolated from the rest of the world. The Japanese were forbidden by the emperor from leaving the country, and foreign merchants were not allowed to conduct any business in Japan.

However, in 1854 Japan was forced to open its harbour to American trade for the Americans threatened to declare war on Japan otherwise. By 1858, the United States, Britain and France had established supply bases in Japan.

However, it was only during the rule of the Emperor Mutsuhito, also known as Meiji, that a program to modernize Japan was started in 1868. Machines and machine tools were imported from the west, and the diligence and determination of the Japanese took Japan to the industrial level of Europe and United States by the end of the nineteenth century.

Who was the founder of the Red Cross?

Who was the founder of the Red Cross?

The Red Cross was founded by a Swiss gentleman called Jean Henri Dunant. It is an international humanitarian movement formed to protect human life and health, to ensure respect for the human being, and to prevent and alleviate human suffering, without any discrimination based on nationality, race, religious beliefs, class or political opinions.

Before the formation of the Red Cross, there were no organized and well-established Army nursing systems for casualties. Nor were there any safe and protected institutions to accommodate and treat those who were wounded on the battlefield. In 1862, Jean Henri Dunant was horrified by the scenes of wounded soldiers being left to die on the battlefield. He published a booklet urging people to set up voluntary societies that would help the sick and wounded in times of war.

As a result, an international conference was held in Geneva, in 1864 and 26 countries took part in it. This conference agreed that wounded soldiers should be respected, that military hospitals should be considered neutral, and that vehicles carrying a white flag with a red cross shout not be attacked. The agreement is known as the Geneva Convention, and the white flag with the red cross has come to be accepted world wide as a symbol of peace, compassion and ‘Charity in War’.

Why was the book “The Origin of Species” so important?

Why was the book “The Origin of Species” so important?

Have you heard of Charles Darwin? He was an English naturalist who wrote the book “Origin of the Species” in 1859. This book created history, as it attempted to explain the evolution of every species as a process of natural selection. According to Darwin, there is a constant survival for struggle in nature. Only the fittest of each species would survive and reproduce. The weak would die out. His conclusion was that ‘every species adapted over millions of years to survive in an ever changing environment’.

Darwin based his theory on the observations he made during a long voyage that he undertook on board a naval survey ship. His theory raised a storm of controversy as it traced the evolution of humans to an ape-like ancestor who exited millions of years ago. This seemed to deny that man was created by God, as is preached in the Bible. Nevertheless Darwin’s theory gradually gained acceptance, and remains an all time classic to this day.

Why was the first independence movement in India called ‘The Sepoy Revolt’?

Why was the first independence movement in India called ‘The Sepoy Revolt’?

The Indian Mutiny of 1857 was a rebellion against British rule by a large part of the Bengal Army in India. It is also called the Sepoy Revolt because Indian troops in the British-controlled Army were called sepoys. The mutiny, which was confined to the north, was the most serious threat to British rule in India in the 19th century.

The Sepoy Revolt was an explosion of festering social wounds. There was simmering resentment against the British and matters came to a head when Indian troops were issued cartridges coated in cow and grease. Hindus consider the cow to be holy and Muslims consider pigs to be unclean. The troops refused to handle the cartridges, and the Sepoy Revolt was the result.

Thousands of Indian soldiers revolted. They proclaimed Bahadur Shah Zafar as the emperor of India. the revolt was finally quelled in 1858…yet it proved to the forerunner of the Independence Movement in India.

Why was Florence Nightingale so famous?

Why was Florence Nightingale so famous?

Have you heard about Florence Nightingale, who was also called ‘The lady with the lamp’? She became a leg end for her compassion and kindness as she nursed wounded soldiers during the Crimean War. Even in the dead of night, she would move amongst the wounded and dying, holding aloft her lamp, comforting all those who were suffering.

Florence Nightingale was born in Italy on 12 May 1820 and was named Florence after the city where she was born. When grown up, she made visits to the homes of the sick in the local villages, and began to investigate hospitals and nursing.

In March 1854, Britain, France and Turkey declared war on Russia. On 4 November 1854, Florence Nightingale arrived at the Barrack Hospital in Scutari, a suburbon the Asian side of Constantinople, with 38 nurses. They devoted themselves to reorganizing the hospital.

When she finally returned to England, Florence Nightingale had become so famous that she was able to raise the money to start a training school for nurses.

Florence Nightingale’s greatest achievement was to make nursing a respectable profession and to set new standards to skill, good behaviour and discipline in nursing.

Why was the ‘California Gold Rush’, so called?

Why was the ‘California Gold Rush’, so called?

The state of California became a part of the United States in 1848. However, it came into the limelight only on January 24, 1848, when gold was discovered by a carpenter named John Marshall, at a place called Sutter’s Mill. Soon more nuggets were found nearby. By 1849, news of the gold strike reached the East Coast… and the Gold Rush began!

These early gold-seekers, called “forty-niners”, traveled to California by sailing ship and in covered wagons across the continent, often facing substantial hardships on the trip. While most of the newly-arrived were Americans, the Gold Rush also attracted thousands from Latin America, Europe, Australia and Asia.

The effects of the Gold Rush were substantial. San Francisco grew from a tiny hamlet of tents to be a boomtown and roads. Its harbour became known as the Golden Gate.

In 1850, most of the easily accessible gold had been collected and attention turned to the fold from more difficult locations. Americans began to drive out foreigners to get at the most accessible gold that remained.

The Gold Rush stimulated economies around the world. It transformed California from a sleepy, little-known backwater to the centre of the global imagination and the destination of the hundreds of thousands of people.

Why is the book ‘The Communist Manifesto’ so famous?

Why is the book ‘The Communist Manifesto’ so famous?

The Communist Manifesto was first published on February 21, 1848, and is one of the world’s most influential political documents. It was written by communist theorists Frederich Engels and Karl Marx. However, Engels himself has said that the Manifesto was ‘essentially Marx’s work’ and that ‘the basic though… belongs solely and exclusively to Marx’

The manifesto suggested a course of action for a working class revolution in Europe to overthrow the ruling class. Its goal was to eventually bring about a classless society. The Communist Manifesto was to become of the most widely read and discussed documents in the 20th century

Who discovered Antarctica?

Who discovered Antarctica?

Antarctica, the Earth’s southernmost continent is also the fifth largest, as well as the coldest, driest and windiest continent. It has no permanent population. Only cold-adapted plants and animals survive there, including penguins, fur seals mosses, lichens and many types of algae. It is indeed a strange yet beautiful place.

Though the famous Captain Cook circled the continent in 1775, he did not sight land. Many sailing and whaling ships followed him, and some of them might have had a glimpse of Antarctica. However, the first confirmed sighting of the continent occurred in 1820 by the Russian expedition of Mikhail Lazarev and Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen. But the continent remained largely neglected because of its hostile environment, lack of resources, and isolated location.

Three main expeditions later explored Antarctica. The French under JCS Dumont d’Urville planted their flag on an island off the coast of Adelie Land in 1840. The Americans under Charles Wilkes discovered Wilkes land in the same year. In 1841, a Britisher, James Clark Ross, discovered Ross Island shelf.

When was slavery abolished?

When was slavery abolished?

Slavery was a dreadful system where one human being actually owned another. A slave had no rights, and was considered to the property of his or her master.

Though slavery was abolished in England in 1772, the slave trade continued for many years more. About 20,000 Africans were sent to America every year. They traveled under the cruelest conditions on ships that set sail from Liverpool, Bristol and London. The opponents of this trade were called the Abolitionists, and they finally got Parliament to declare it illegal, in 1833.

In America, slaves were also brought in directly from Africa from about the 1640s until 1865. In the North, slaves were mainly house servants, while in the South slaves worked on the farms and plantations. By 1840, the issue of slavery had divided the nation into two. The North wanted to abolish slavery throughout the nation, while the South stoutly opposed any move by the North to dictate what the Southern states should do. This led to a long and bloody civil war, which ended in 1865. The North won the war, and slavery was abolished throughout America too. The man behind this historical victory was President Abraham Lincoln.

Where was the Morse Code first used?

Where was the Morse Code first used?

Do you know what the Morse Code was? It was a way of sending information from one place to another, using a system of dots and dashes that are transmitted telegraphic through electromagnetic recording.

The Morse Code was the brainchild of Samuel Morse, an American painter of portraits and historic scenes. The idea came to him when he was on a ship to New York. There he met Dr. Charles Jackson of Boston who was well schooled in electromagnetism. After witnessing various experiments with Jackson’s electromagnet, Morse became hooked on the concept of a telegraph. He was already devising his code even before the ship docked.

Morse did not have much money to spend on his invention. It was only in 1944 that the US Congress allocated the money to string a copper wire between Washington and Baltimore. Morse then tapped out the first telegraphic message from the Supreme Court Building. It read ‘What has God wrought’. In time, the Morse code would become the primary language of telegraphy in the world.

Who discovered electro magnetic induction?

Who discovered electro magnetic induction?

Electro magnetic induction is the generation of electric current in a conductor situated in a moving magnetic field, or a conductor moving through a stationary magnetic field. The great English scientist, Michael Faraday, made this revolutionary discovery in 1831. The principle of induction was a landmark in applied science, for it made possible the dynamo, or generator, which produces electricity by mechanical means.

Faraday is known for his pioneering experiments in electricity and magnetism. He had a passion for conducting scientific experiments. Many concepts that he learn from his experiments, have become common ideas in modern Physics.

Faraday received little formal education. After basic primary schooling, Faraday was apprenticed to a book binder when he was just 14 years old. During this period, he became interested in the physical and chemical works. After he heard a lecture by the famous chemist Humphrey Davy, he sent Davy the notes he had made of his lectures. Davy was so impressed, that he appointed 21 year old Faraday as his assistant in the laboratory of the Royal Institute in London. This paved the way for Faraday’s future as a great scientist.

Five Famous people who died young:
Name & Age of Death

1. Anne Frank, German Jew and diarist – 15
2. Tutankhamen, Egyptian pharaoh – 17
3. Joan of Arc, French heroin – 19
4. Beatrice Portinari, Italian noble woman immortalized by Dante in his Divine Comedy – 23
5. John Keats, English poet – 25

When and how was photography invented?

From very ancient times, men preserved images by drawing pictures. People had long cherished the dream of preserving images immediately, and by mechanical means. During the course of study and experimentation, people learned that sunlight reflected from an object, which passes through a small hole into a dark room or a box, will form its inverted image on the wall or on the side of the box.

It was later discovered that if a metal plate is coated with bitumen and place in the room/box, the image could be permanently fixed. This idea was discovered by Joseph Niepce in 1826. Later on, he entered into a partnership with Louis Jacques Daguerre. Both of them worked to refine this method and unveiled the daguerreotype. In 1879, George Eastman invented a method to produce these photographic plates on a large scale basis. This was later developed into the film rolls that we see today. This invention of the film roll paved the way for the growth of the motion picture industry.

Star factor
5 rulers who reigned the longest:

1. Pepi II, King of Egypt, 90 years (2566 BC – 2476 BC)
2. Louis XIV , King of France, 72 years (1643 – 1715)
3. John II, Prince of Liechtestein, 71 years (1858 – 1929)
4. Franz Josef, King of Austria Hungary, 67 years (1848 – 1916)
5. Victoria, Queen of England, 64 years (1837 – 1901

Who was George Stephenson?

Who was George Stephenson?

There is something very exciting about watching a train thundering past, isn’t there? Today, trains run mostly on electricity or diesel, but did you know that the very first trains ran on steam? The steam engine was invented by an engineer called George Stephenson. His life is an excellent example of how a poor boy can ultimately win eminence and fame by industry and perseverance.

Stephenson started his career as an engine-man at a coal mine. For the next ten years, his knowledge of steam engines increased, until in 1812 he stopped operating them for a living, and started building them. Stephenson designed his first locomotive in 1814. It was a traveling engine designed for hauling coal on a coal site. In 1825, he built a steam locomotive for the first passenger railway.

Stephenson gained fame as the designer of the historically important steam locomotive named Rocket. He is known as the ‘Father of Railways”. His invention really changed the way people traveled in the nineteenth century.

Who was the father of the computer?

Who was the father of the computer?

Charles Babbage is called the ‘father of the computer’. He was a professor of Mathematics at Cambridge University. In 1823, he began work on calculating machine, but it was not completed. The second machine, which he called an ‘analytical engine’, too did not reach completion. Nonetheless, the analytical engine as Babbage conceived it is regarded as the predecessor of the modern digital computer.

When did Beethoven write the Ninth Symphony?

When did Beethoven write the Ninth Symphony?

Ludwig van Beethoven is one the greatest composers of all times. He wrote his ninth and last symphony in 1823, when he had turned almost completely deaf. Although he was depressed, it is not reflected in this symphony which is indeed glorious. It was planned as early as 1816 and written for the London Philharmonic Society.

Beethoven was born in Bonn in 1770. He went to Vienna in 1792, to study music, and soon became well-known as a pianist. His fame increased rapidly, while simultaneously, he was growing deaf. This made him dejected, but he refused to give up. ‘I will seize fate by the throat’ he vowed. He went on to produce a profusion of wonderful music that was innovative too. Beethoven’s influence is such, that he is so to music, what Shakespeare to literature.

Who invented the stethoscope?

Who invented the stethoscope?

A French doctor, Rene Laennec, is credited with the invention of the stethoscope, in 1816. It was a landmark in the area of medical treatment. The stethoscope, as we know it now, is an instrument used by doctors to listen to the sounds made by the heart, lungs and other organs in the patient’s body. But the one designed by Laennec was first made as a paper tube, and later as a wooden pipe, the modern stethoscope which can be plugged into the ears was developed later

Why was Sir Humphrey Davy so famous?

Why was Sir Humphrey Davy so famous?

Sir Humphrey Davy was the person who invented the Miner’s Safety Lamp in 1815. He was a British chemist who had a very brilliant and inventive brain that was also bubbling with new ideas. One of Sir Davy’s ideas was the use of laughing gas as an anaesthetic. However, this came to be used only after his death.

Why is the year 1804, so important in history of transportation?

Why is the year 1804, so important in history of transportation?

A revolution in the field of transportation took place in 1804, when steam railways were introduced for first time. Earlier, horses were used to pull carriages along iron railways that were laid out. Richard Trevithick, a Cornish mining engineer was the first to use a steam engine to haul the trucks.

On February 11, 1804, the engine pulled a 20 ton truck from Merthyr Tydfil to Abercyon in Wales, covering a distance of 15 kilometres. Some people expressed the fear that the wheels would slip on the iron rails, but the trial run turned out to be a success. Trevithick was convinced the railway could be used for passenger travel also. He set up a small railway in London in 1808. He used to give joy rides to people in an engine named Catch-me-who-can.

Shakespeare’s Mistake!

In Shakespeare’s time in England, no one bothered much about spelling. That’s because the idea of always spelling words in the same way was still very new. As a matter of fact even Shakespeare wasn’t consistent in using spelling. He signed his name in several different ways at different times. Shagspeare, Shakespeare and Shaxpere are just a few of the spellings he used!

Who wrote the ‘Essay on the principles of population’?

Who wrote the ‘Essay on the principles of population’?

Thomas Malthus was an English demographer and political economist. He is best known for his highly influential views on population. In ‘An Essay on the Principle of Population’, first published in 1798, Malthus made the famous prediction that population would outrun food supply.

Malthus’s observation was that in nature, plants and animals produce far more offspring than can survive. He argued that Man too is capable of overproducing it left unchecked. Malthus concluded that unless family size was regulated, there would be global famine and mankind would die away.

His theory was widely misunderstood, and raised a lot of controversy. Yet, it transformed him into an international celebrity, and his essay was eventually recognized as what it truly was… the first serious economic study of the welfare of the lower classes.


Believe it or not

Born to Rule

An ancient civilization that flourished in Mesopotamia, which lies in modern day Iraq, practiced a strange ritual to please their gods. During the New Year or during troubled times, the people of Mesopotamia sacrificed the life of their king to satisfy their deities. In real fact, the actual king was given the day off, and helpless commoner was sworn king for the day, jus t so he could be sacrificed! In 1861 B.C. Enlil-Bani was the king’s substitute. But incredibly, just as he was about to be hung, a breathless messenger arrived with the news that the real king had died! Enlil-Bani was saved, and subsequently, ruled Mesopotamia for 24 years!

Birds to the battlefront!

The cavalrymen of Media in the fifth century won many wars against the Greeks riding very unusual mounts into battle. They rode ostriches, not horses!

Saved by April fool’s Day!

In 1634, Nicolas Francois and his wife, Claude, the Duke and Duchess of Lorraine in France, were sentenced to death. They were imprisoned in their palace at Nancy. On April 1, they escaped from to freedom by climbing out of a palace window. Then they swam across the river Meurthe to safety. Witnesses who saw them shouted, to alert the guards, but the guards did nothing! They thought it was just an elaborate April fool’s joke!

Why is Edward Jenner so well known in the field of medicine?

Why is Edward Jenner so well known in the field of medicine?

Edward Jenner was the person who introduced the practice of vaccination which proved to be a boon in the field of medicine. Jenner was a doctor who lived in Berkeley, England. In those days deaths due to small pox were very common.

However, country people noticed that persons who worked with cattle and had contracted with cowpox, never seemed to catch small pox. Dr. Edward Jenner decided to find out if there was any truth in the belief. As the first stage in his experiment he injected liquid from cowpox sores into a young boy called James Phipps. This was in the 1796. The boy caught the disease, but was soon healed.

As the second stage, Jenner injected the boy with smallpox. But it had no effect on the boy’s health. The cowpox had made him immune.

Although, initially there was opposition to the practice of vaccination, it gained rapid popularity all over the world. Because of Jenner’s efforts, small pox has been eradicated from the world, today.

Why was Olympe de Gouges earned a name for her work in winning women’s rights?

Why was Olympe de Gouges earned a name for her work in winning women’s rights?

The desire to fight in equalities against women began by the end of the eighteenth century. Bold, pioneering woman like Olympe de Gouges played a vital part in this, by publishing “Declaration of the Rights of Woman”. It was published in 1789. She wrote this as a protest against the omission from the French Revolutionists’ Declaration of the Rights of Man. Around the same time, an English governess, Mary Wollstonecraft published “A Vindication of the Rights of Women”. These works have remained a milestone in the women’s rights movement.

In 19th century, American civil right leader Susan B. Anthony (1820 – 1906) played a crucial role in the women’s rights movement to secure women’s suffrage in the United States. She traveled through the length and breadth of the United States and Europe and gave 75 to 100 speeches per year on women’s rights for nearly 45 years.

In the course of Susan’s campaign for securing voting rights for women, she was arrested for casting a vote in the presidential election held on November 5, 1872. She pleaded not guilty, arguing that the Constitution entitled her to vote.

Susan Anthony recited a now famous speech before the court, in defense of women’s suffrage. The following is an excerpt from her court speech:
“Friends and fellow citizens: I stand before you tonight under indictment for the alleged crime of having voted at the last presidential election, without having a lawful right to vote. It shall be my work this evening to prove to you that in thus voting, I not only committed no crime, but, instead, simply exercised my citizen’s rights, guaranteed to me and all United States citizens by the National Constitution, beyond the power of any state to deny.

The preamble of the Federal Constitution says: “We, the people of the united States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice ensure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America”.

It was we, the people; not we, the white male citizens; nor yet we, the male citizens; but we the whole people, who formed the Union. And we formed it, not to give the blessings of liberty, but to secure them; not to the half of ourselves and the half of our posterity, but to the whole people women as well as men”.

Star Fact

Babur, the Mughal emperor is said to have been extremely strong and physically fit. Legend holds that Babur swam across every major river he encountered, including twice across the Ganges.

Why is the French Revolution so unique?

Why is the French Revolution so unique?

The late eighteenth century saw a new phenomenon of common people rising in opposition to the monarch and kings who ruled them. These important revolutions occurred in countries like England and France.

First, England’s main colonial possession in North America declared itself independent and emerged as a new nation. Next, the French people, weary of the absolute despotism, rebelled against Louis XVI, who had been in power since 1774. Both the middle class and the poor had long been unhappy with the privileges and power of the nobility. Their anger ignited the revolution when Louis declared the nobility exempt from taxes.

On July 14, 1789, an enormous throng of people stormed and captured the Bastille, the Royal Fortress in Paris. The people declared themselves to be citizens of France, and no longer subjects of the King of France. As the momentum of revolution grew, anarchy reigned in France especially in Paris. The King, the Queen and their family were imprisoned; and in 1793, they were beheaded one by one on the guillotine.

Who were the Montgolfier brothers?

Who were the Montgolfier brothers?

The Montgolfier brothers wee Joseph and Etienne two brothers in France who made aviation history with their hot air balloons in 1783. They were convinced that the same kind of heated air which sent pieces of paper wafting up in a chimney from their home fire could also lift men into the air. They succeeded in their experiments in 1783. Their balloon was made of linen lined with paper, and filled with hot air from a straw and wool fire.

Louis XIV and Marie Antoinette witnessed the first flight by living creatures at Versailles when the brothers sent a sheep, a duck, and a rooster into the air in a basket suspended from their balloon. A month later the first person to fly, Pilatre de Rozier went up in a Montgolfier balloon.

How was mercury oxide discovered?

How was mercury oxide discovered?

Mercury oxide was discovered by the French chemist Antoine Laurent Lavosier during his experiments with the element oxygen. Oxygen was discovered in 1774 by Priestly. It was also discovered at about the same time by the Swedish scientist Scheele who called it ‘empyreal’ or ‘fire air’. But Lavosier gave the element its modern name – oxygen.

In addition to repeating the experiment conducted by Priestly, Lavosier carryout out several of his own. In one such experiment, he showed that mercury heated in small amount of oxygen was transformed into a red powder which he called mercury oxide.

What was the Boston Tea Party?

What was the Boston Tea Party?

The Boston Tea Party was the famous incident that sowed the seeds of American War of Independence. The series of events that led to this incident are as follows. Trade in the American colonies was regulated by Great Britain and as such some restrictions were imposed on trade. This led to smuggling by the settlers.

The British tried to reinforce the Navigation Act to control trade, but met with failure. In 1765, the British government passed the Stamp Act according to which all legal documents in America had to have an official stamp. The protest against this by the colonies was so strong that the Act had to be repealed.

In 1767, tax was imposed on tea and other imports to America. Subsequently, most of the taxes were abolished, but the one on tea remained. In 1773, some of the colonists openly demonstrated their objection to this. Dressed up as Red Indians, they boarded British ships in Boston harbour and threw the cases of tea that they carried, into the sea. This incident is known in history as the ‘Boston Tea Party’.

How did America acquire her independence?

How did America acquire her independence?

Trade in American colonies was regulated by Great Britain. These imposed controls annoyed the settlers. There were acts of rebellion, such as The Boston Tea Party, and gradually, this flared into a war in 1775 when shots were fired at Lexington.

Though the British won many battles initially, George Washington appointed by the American Congress inspired the untrained American soldiers to fight for their freedom. The Americans were also aided in their fight by Britain’s enemies in Europe. The Congress issued the Declaration of independence on July 4, 1776. The Declaration renounced loyalty to the British throne and resolved that United Colonies are, and of right, ought to be free and independent States. Finally, General Cornwallis cut off at Yorktown with French ships preventing aid reaching him. He surrendered and fighting ended. America was granted its independence in 1783.

Why is the Industrial Revolution considered a landmark in history?

Why is the Industrial Revolution considered a landmark in history?

The Industrial Revolution may be defined as the application of power-driven machinery to manufacturing. In the eighteenth century (around 1774) all of Western Europe began to industrialize rapidly. In England, the process was most highly accelerated.




By the beginning of the eighteenth century in England, the used of machines in manufacturing was already widespread. In 1762, Mathew Boulton built a factory which employed more than six hundred workers and installed a team engine to supplement power. In 1733, John Kay, a Lancashire mechanic, patented his flying shuttle. James Hargreaves patented a spinning jenny on which one operator could spin many threads simultaneously. Then, in 1779, Samuel Crompton combined jenny and the water frame in a machine known as ‘Crompton’s mule’, which produced quantities of fine, strong yarn.




Electricity was a major factor in the phenomenally rapid industrialization or Britain and Europe. The coming of the railroads greatly facilitated the industrialization of Europe.




The big railway boom in Britain came in the years 1844 to 1847. British success with steam locomotion, however, was enough to encourage the building of railroads in most European countries, often with British capital, equipment and technicians. Railroads became a standard item of British export. The internal combustion engine was developed in Europe before 1900.




At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the steam driven ships appeared on the horizon. The first practical steamship was constructed by an American Robert Fulton in 1907, and soon steamships were routinely crossing the Atlantic.




Communications also saw developments during this period. In 1871, telegraph cable reached from London to Australia; messages could be flashed halfway around the globe in a matter of minutes, speeding commercial transactions.




Alexander Graham Bell in 1876 transmitted the human voice over a wire. The world continued to shrink at a great rate as new means of transport and communication speeded the pace of life with the coming of the Industrial Revolution.

What was James Cook remembered?

What was James Cook remembered?

James Cook is one of the greatest names in the history of exploration. The Endeavour was the ship in which James Cook made his first voyage (1768-71). Cook made three great voyages, in the course of which he discovered many new lands, chartered coastlines. He thus paved the way for the British colonization of Australia and New Zealand

Why was the Battle of Plassey so important?

Why was the Battle of Plassey so important?

The Battle of Plassey, fought between Nawab of Bengal, Siraj Ud Daulah and British East India Company is judged as one the pivotal battles leading to the formation of the British Empire in India. The battle took place on June 23, 1757 at Plassey (Palashi), India.




Bengal had a long standing treaty with the East India Company, who held Calcutta. When Siraj Ud Daulah crowned as new Nawab of Bengal in 1756, he ignored the treaty, and occupied Calcutta. The East India Company responded with an Army led by Robert Clive, which recaptured Calcutta, and then caught up with the Nawab’s Army at the village of Plassey.




Clive had just over 3, 000 troops, of whom 2, 000 were Indian, while the Nawab had 50, 000 men, with French artillery. However, most of the Nawab’s Army were led by traitors who had conspired with British. As a result, the Bengali troops of the Nawab fled the battle offering much resistance, and the British were able to overwhelm the French artillery. Clive had won a famous victory for the loss of between 20 and 70 men.

Who made the first inoculation against the dreaded small pox disease?

Who made the first inoculation against the dreaded small pox disease?

Smallpox was an extremely common disease until the eighteenth century. But it was often a fatal disease, death being sure in most cases. Small pox starts as a rash which develops into blisters. Within a few days, the blisters fester and then start to dry and crack up.


The death rate for this disease was high until a breakthrough was achieved by Lady Mary Wortley in 1717. She noticed that in Turkey, where her husband was the ambassador, they used fluid from the smallpox blisters to protect those who were uninfected. She introduced the practice-variolation (small pox was also known as variola) – to Britain, where it was quickly accepted. Some people did die during the process, but overall the death rate was vastly reduced

Why is Fahrenheit’s thermometer important?

Why is Fahrenheit’s thermometer important?

The mercury thermometer was invented in 1714 by Gabrield Daniel Fahrenheit, a German instrument maker. He also introduced the new temperature scale, known as the Fahrenheit scale after him. The zero on this scale was thirty two degrees below the freezing point of water on the Celsius scale i.e. zero degrees Celsius, and the boiling point of water i.e. hundred degrees Celsius was equal to 212 degrees Fahrenheit.


Mercury was more responsive to temperature changes, did not evaporate, and was therefore, preferable to any other liquid. Calibrated marks on the tube allow the temperature to be read by the length of the mercury within the tube. The end of the thermometer is usually shaped like a bulb. The expansion and contraction of the mercury can be noted by observing the bore of the tube. The space above the mercury was often filled with nitrogen or is a vacuum.


No Mercury


Today, the use of mercury thermometers for medical purposes is often not allowed. However, they are still widely used for meteorological purposes. Some reputed organizations in the world recommend that mercury thermometers not be sued as they are harmful both to the body and to the environment.

When did Scotland become part of Great Britain?

When did Scotland become part of Great Britain?

At the end of the seventeenth century, there was growing dissension in England and Scotland, regarding the relationship between these two countries. William III was more interested in England because of its value to him in his European affairs.


Many people advocated that the two kingdoms should become separate states. William and his advisors were more in favour of an incorporated union, although Scottish feeling was of the opinion that such a union would stifle Scotland even further.


In 1706, Queen Anne set up a commission to draw up a treaty for union. The resultant Act decreed that two countries be united as Great Britain under one parliament and one flag. The trade, religious practices, and law making for Scotland. It became law in May 1707.

When was Newton’s Principia published and what does it contain?

When was Newton’s Principia published and what does it contain?

The Black Death in London resulted in the shutting down of Cambridge University in year. Isaac Newton, a young mathematician working as a fellow in Trinity College there retired to Lincolnshire where he could work at leisure.


Newton worked on optics, demonstrating that white light was made up of many colours. However, he is most famous for his work on gravitation. He believed that the laws of gravity could be extended even to celestial objects. The story of the apple falling is well known, but it is probably only a legend. Using the calculus, one of his inventions, he showed mathematically that the moon was held in its orbit by gravity, otherwise it could move in a straight line, at a tangent to its orbit.


Newton’s theory of universal gravitation said that every body attracts another which a force which depends on their masses and decreases with the square of their distances from each other. He used this theory to explain the shape of the earth, tides and even the shape of the universe. He put these ideas down in the Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, universally known as Principia which is perhaps one of the most influential scientific books ever written.

How did the great fire of London start?

How did the great fire of London start?

On September 2, 1666, a fire was discovered in the house of John Farynor, the king’s baker in Pudding Lane, a narrow street East of the London Bridge. Unfortunately for the residents of London, there was a strong wind, which blew the flames towards the city.


The fire spread rapidly and burnt for four days. It spread from London Bridge to Lombard Street and to Cornhill, from Cheapside to Fleet Street and then to the Inner Temple and New gate. Over 121 hectares of land were completely destroyed.

When was the English East India Company founded?

When was the English East India Company founded?

The Dutch had, at one point of time, controlled most of the spice trade with Indonesia and Moluccas. London, as the other great city of traders was very concerned about this. As the sixteenth century drew to a close, on its very last day, Queen Elizabeth granted permission to a newly formed company to carry on trade in Asia, Africa and America between Cape Cod and the Strait of Magellan. The ships of the East India Company, as it was called, followed the route to the East via Cape of Good Hope. Soon it was as large as the Royal Navy in terms ships and men. The supremacy of the East India Company over India is well known. This continued until 1874, when the Company handed over India to the Crown in Britain.

Why is Galileo Galilee so famous?

Why is Galileo Galilee so famous?

Galileo Galilee (1564 – 1642) was a celebrated Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer and philosopher who is synonymous with the scientific revolution. Often referred to as the ‘father of the modern astronomy, Physics and science’, his achievements include the first systematic studies of uniformly accelerated motion, and improvements to the telescope. He made a variety of astronomical observations, and supported the theories of Copernicus.


Galileo’s experiment-based work represented a significant break from the abstract approach of Aristotle. Galileo studied the motion of uniformly accelerated objects, as subject of kinematics.


Galileo was born in Pisa in modern day Italy. In 1589, he was appointed to the chair of Mathematics in Pisa. From 1592 to 1610 he taught geometry, mechanics, and astronomy at the university of Padua. During this period, Galileo made significant discoveries in both pure science and applied science

What is the importance of Shakespeare in English literature?

What is the importance of Shakespeare in English literature?

William Shakespeare was born in 1564 in Stratford-on-Avon. In 1587, he went to London seeking a job. He discovered theatre there, and was much attracted to it. After being employed as an actor doing small roles, a writer and a patcher of old scripts, Shakespeare finally became the head playwright and the part-owner of the Globe Theatre in Southwark. In the 1590s, Shakespeare’s reputation grew steadily, and he wrote a number of plays and sonnets. He enjoyed royal patronage for many of his plays.


The total of 37 plays that Shakespeare wrote include comedies, tragedies, romances and histories. Shakespeare’s drama is accepted by people of all tastes. Some of his famous plays are “A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Macbeth, Hamlet, Twelfth Night, Julius Caesar and As You Like It”. Many call his plays and their rich poetry unparalleled in history.

Who founded the Mughal dynasty in India?

Who founded the Mughal dynasty in India?

The founder of the Mughal dynasty was Babur, who ruled from 1483 to 1530. He was a direct descendant of Timur, and believed himself to be a descendant also of Genghis Khan through his mother.


Babur ruled over a small kingdom in Turkestan; he expanded his kingdom by attacking Afghanistan and capturing Kabul in 1504. From there, he crossed over the mountains into Hindustan and attacked Delhi Sultanate. With an Army of only twelve thousand men, he defeated the Sultan at Panipat, captured Agra and Delhi and established himself as Sultan. He then attacked a confederation of Rajput states. When he died in 1530, he had conquered an empire that extended from the Deccan to Turkestan.

Which was the first ship to sail around the world?

Which was the first ship to sail around the world?

Though Columbus had discovered the West Indies, however the search for a new trade route to the East continued. Magellan, a Portuguese sailor was in the service of the Spanish Government and he was one of the many engaged in this pursuit. In August 1519, he set out with five ships badly in need of repair, and a crew drawn from many countries. He overcame a mutiny abroad the ship. The men had tried to revolt when they heard that he was planning to look for a strait in the southernmost tip of South America. The strait, which allowed his to cross into the pacific is named after him. Magellan crossed the pacific with great difficulty, his supplies having run out by then. He finally reached the Philippines but was killed in a local war there.


The Vittoria, the only one of Magellan’s ships to remain, sailed back to Portugal in 1522. She became the first ship to sail around the world.

Why was Spain able to become a very powerful nation?

Why was Spain able to become a very powerful nation?

Following Columbus’s discoveries, Spain acted quickly to exploit the New World. In the course of their conquests in South America, the Spanish came into conflict with two of the most ancient civilizations –the Aztec Empire and eh Inca Empire. The Spanish had the advantage of firearms and soldiers on horses, while this type of warfare was unknown to the Native Americans. The Spanish won quite easily, and these two conquests were the first major conflicts between the Old World and the New World’s rich mineral resources at Spain’s disposal making Spain the most powerful nation in the world for the next 100 years. It also encouraged Spain to expand at the time had the largest empire in the western hemisphere.

Who was Michelangelo?

Who was Michelangelo?

Michelangelo (1475 – 1564) is responsible for the beautiful paintings the vault on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican. The painting, consisting of scenes from the Bible, covers an area of 1500 square metres. Michelangelo started its work in 1508. It is said that he suffered pain in his neck, from bending his head back, for years after he had finished it.


Michelangelo was not only the greatest artist, but also an architect, poet and a sculptor. One of his most famous sculptures is the Virgin Mary holding the body of Jesus. Pieta and the statue of David are great works of art.


It is said that Michelangelo’s genius is not just great natural talent, but also a supernatural ability to work towards perfection. He spent forty years on the tomb of his patron Pope Julius II, and never finished it to his satisfaction

Who painted the Mona Lisa?

Who painted the Mona Lisa?

The most famous painting in the world – the Mona Lisa was painted by Leonardo da Vinci. It is housed in the Louvre Museum, Paris (France). It is the picture of a young woman with a mysterious smile. Leonardo da Vinci had painted the portrait on a flat surface but it is almost as if the young woman were alive.


Leonardo da Vinci was a true Renaissance man, some say, because he was always experimenting with things. In painting, he always experimented with new materials and because he did this, he left a lot of work unfinished. His mind was brimming over with new ideas and he carried a notebook with him where he drew pictures of machines and engines of war. Leonardo even designed a submarine and a flying machine. Many of these remained on paper and were never built, but this proves fact remains his mind was far ahead of his time.

Why was Vasco da Gama’s journey to India so important?

Why was Vasco da Gama’s journey to India so important?

Spices and other valuable goods from India reached Europe from very ancient times. However, goods from India had to travel a long way through sea and land to reach Europe. Trading merchants had to cross the Arabian and Red Sea, and also an overland route through Central Asia. This took a lot of time and effort, making goods from India highly expensive and rare. When the Turks captured Constantinople in 1453, the excluded the Europeans from the trade with the East, by closing the old link between Europe and Asia.


Europeans were keen to find an alternate route to India. In 1488 Bartolemeu Diaz, a Portuguese explorer sailed round the Cape of Good Hope, the southern tip of Africa. This important achievement helped in finding a sea-route to India.


In 1497, Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese sailor was chosen by King Manuel I of Portugal to lead an expedition to find a sea route to India. In July 1497, Gama left Lisbon with four ships. He rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and sailed up to Kenya. From there, he crossed the Indian Ocean, and in April 1498, he landed in India at Calicut, Kerala.


Gama’s new trade route helped open trade between Europe and Asia. It also made Portugal a great power in the 16th century.


Many explorers followed the route that Vasco da Gama had discovered. Portuguese trading posts were established in East Africa and on the west coast of India. Goa was Portugalis chief colony in India, and it remained under Portuguese control till the Indian Government took it over in 1961

What is the Renaissance?

The Renaissance is a cultural movement that marks the period of change between the end of fifteenth century and the beginning of the sixteenth century. The influential cultural movement heralded an era of scientific revolution and artistic transformation.
The Renaissance is often thought to be rediscovery of glories of the Greek and Roman civilizations. Learning and education was on an upsurge, because many universities were established all over the Europe. Although it was a rediscovery of old traditions, the Renaissance was also a time when many important inventions and discoveries took place. Many of the greatest names in history made their contributions in their respective fields during the renaissance. In art, there as Botticelli , Michael Angelo, Raphael and Leonardo da Vinci among many others. Columbus and Magellan were the great explorers of the age. Copernicus, in the field of science, proved round the sun and not vice versa as was believed earlier. Kepler explained the laws of planetary motions, while Galileo discovered the moons of Jupiter and the rings of Saturn by the Telescope also made by him.

Why did Columbus call the islands he discovered, the Indies?

Why did Columbus call the islands he discovered, the Indies?

Christopher Columbus was an Italian sea captain who served Spain. In 1492, in a ship not much bigger than a modern racing yacht, he sailed across the Atlantic, a journey that many were terrified to make. Sailors never sailed out of sight of land. Columbus wanted to discover a new trade route to the riches of the Far East. He knew that the world was round and by sailing towards the West, he could find this route.
He did not know that the large continents of North and South America lay in his way, and his calculations of how big the earth was, proved wrong. When he sighted land after ten weeks, Columbus thought he had reached the outskirts of Asia. He believed that he had discovered the Indies, and named them so. He made three more voyages to the West Indies, still believing them to be part of Asia.
Spain, however showed great enthusiasm towards these discoveries and took up explorations and colonization efforts on a large scale

How did the invention of the printing press alter history?

How did the invention of the printing press alter history?

The method of printing from movable type was invented by Johann Gutenberg. He set up his first printing press in 1454.
Gutenberg was born in Mainz in 1398, but he lived the greater part of his life in Strasbourg. Although he worked as an artisan, he spent his free time in printing experiments.
In the 1450’s he retuned to Mainz and began the work of printing a Latin Bible in collaboration with one Johann Fust, who lent him money for this venture. Seeing the difficulty in carving large wooden types, he decided to cast the type in metal. This work was finished around 1456.
Columbus in the New World
Christopher Columbus’s voyages were ‘sponsored’ by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain. They agreed to commit three ships – the Nina, Pinta and Santa Maria – with crew to undertake the task. It was thus that Columbus landed at San Salvador in the West Indies on October 12, 1492. At that time, he believed that he had reached the Indies in Asia. Thus, unknowingly, he discovered the ‘New World’.

How did the Turks capture Constantinople?

How did the Turks capture Constantinople?

Mahomet II came to the Turkish throne in 1451, and he swore to capture Constantinople. He trained an Army of fighters called janissaries, and engaged a Hungarian engineer to cast the world’s largest guns. In April 1453, his Army was finally ready to attack. The guns began to fire continuously for six weeks. The Army in Constantinople put up a brave front, but it was certain from the beginning that they would be defeated. On May 29, the city fell. The scholars who had lived there fled, taking their manuscripts and documents to Europe, where they started a new interest in learning

Who was Joan of Arc and why is she famous?

Who was Joan of Arc and why is she famous?

The Hundred Year’s War between France and England was almost coming to an end. Henry V, the English king had died. Counselors, who were jealous of each other, ruled France, after the death of Charles VI. The Army too, was totally discouraged. Then, out of nowhere, it appeared, a peasant girl from Lorraine, presented herself at the royal court. She claimed that she had heard heavenly voices telling her to free Orleans from the besieging English.
Although the nobles mocked her, the Army was inspired by this suggestion. This girl, who came to be known as Joan of Arc, led the French Army into battle and succeeded in driving away the English from Orleans. When the Dauphin was crowned Charles VII in the Rheims Cathedral, Joan stood by his side.
Later, she was betrayed, sold to the English, and found guilty of sorcery. Although, she was tragically burned at the stake, Joan of Arc helped unify France. This heroine is today regarded as a symbol of hope and courage.

In history, what is the Black Death?

In history, what is the Black Death?

A terrible disease reached Europe from Eastern countries. The Europeans thought this to be a curse of the ‘savages’ who lived in these countries. Today, this disease is understood to be bubonic/pneumonic plague.
England, at that point of time, was prosperous, thanks to the efforts of Edward III, and the exports of wool and cloth. Hence, reports that the silks and spices from the East had carried the disease did not cause much concern. Then, on a fine summer’s day in1348, a French sailor stepped on English soil. He unknowingly carried the bacillus of the disease, and became the origin of the pestilence that later came to be known as Black Death. It is estimated that at least half a million people-which was a large percentage of population-fell prey to the Black Death. The Black Death spread, and reached its peak in the spring of 1349. It died out during autumn that same year, leaving and behind a disrupted society, and having ruined trade in Europe.

What is the Hundred Years War?

What is the Hundred Years War?

The Hundred Years War is the name given to the long struggle between England and France which started in 1338 and ended 1453. The hundred years was actually lasted for 116 years! The English kings had to pay homage to the French kings for being appointed Dukes of Aquitaine. They did not like to do this. Matters turned serious when Philip VI took over Edward, the King of England’s land in France, and thus, war began. The major events in this war include the battle on the river Sluys in 1340.

Who was Marco Polo?

Who was Marco Polo?

Marco Polo (1254 – 1324), together with his father Niccolo and his uncle Maffeo, was one of the first Westerners to travel the Silk Road to China.
The Polos, who were traders, were looking for new areas for trade, reached the court of the Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, Kublai Khan (grandson of Genghis Khan). It was on their second journey to China, in 1271, that they took along Marco. He became a confidant of Kublai Khan, who took Marco into his service and bestowed many favours on him. The Polos stayed at the court of Kublai Khan for 20 years until 1292. During this period, Marco Polo traveled the whole of China, and his experiences have become part of his writings which is one of the greatest travelogues ever written. This, translated, is what has come to be known as ‘The Travels of Marco Polo’.
The Polos were by no means the first Europeans to reach China by land route. But due to Marco’s book, their journey which was very well documented, became the first to have gained wide publicity, and had far-reaching influences. Marco Polo’s description of the Far East and its riches inspired Christopher Columbus to try to reach lands by a western route. Among Columbus’s belongings was a copy of Marco Polo’s book.
Marco Polo’s return journey
According to Marco’s travel writings, the Polos requested permission from the Khan, many times, to return Europe. But Khan valued them so much that he would not let them go. Finally, in1291, Kublai Khan entrusted Marco with his last duty-to escort the Mongol princes Koekecin (also spelt as Cocacin) to her betrothed, Arghun of the Ilkhanate in Persia. The party sailed out from the southern port city of Quanzhou. They went on to Sumatra, and then to Persia, via Sri Lanka and India. Marco Polo visits included Mylapore, Madurai and Alleppey, which he nicknamed Venice of the East. In 1293 or 1294, the Polos reached the Ilkhanate, ruled by Gaykhatu after the death of Arghun. They left Koekecin with new Ilkhan, and moved on the Trabzon from where the sailed to Venice.

Who signed the Magna Carta?

Who signed the Magna Carta?

King John of England, who ascended the throne on the death of his brother, Richard I, proved to be a wicked ruler. He lost a lot of the Kingdom’s lands in France, got involved in a controversy with the Pope. Finally England had enough and King John was forced to sign the Magna Carta (or the Great Charter). This took place in June 1215, at Runnymede. The charter stated that the King was beneath the law and not above it. Its spirit has influenced the law of England ever since. The most enduring legacy of the Magna Carta was the right of Habeas Corpus.

Who was Genghis Khan?

Who was Genghis Khan?

Genghis Khan (1167-1227 AD) was a warlord of Mongol, who evolved as one of the most successful military leaders in the history of the world. The Mongols were a nomadic people who lived on the plains of Central Asia. In the late twelfth century, Genghis became the ambitious leader of the Mongol band, that set no limits as to what the size of the Mongol Empire could be.
Having captured the whole of China, by 1214, Genghis Khan turned his attention westwards, towards lands that had never heard of his conquests. The ‘Mongol Hordes’ as this huge Army of heavily-armed horsemen came to be known, swept across vast territories, reaping victory wherever they went. Russia, the Persian empire, Poland and Hungary fell under them. Over the next eight years, Genghis accumulated the largest contiguous empire that the world had seen so far.
However, unlike Alexander the Great, Persian Emperors or the Romans, Genghis Khan had no idea of ruling over other peoples, and conquered territories. In fact, his aim was only to loot and destroy everything in his path. His cruelty and lack of concern for human life made him the most dreaded figures in Asia and Europe.
The Hordes were dependent on military abilities of Genghis Khan for their success. On his death, Ogadai Khan took up the reins and continued the conquests. Bu the Mongols soon exhausted themselves and went back to Central Asia.
Before the invasions by Genghis Khan, the people of Europe and China were unaware of each other. Thus, the significance of these invasions is that it made people at opposites ends of the globe aware of one another. In fact, before the Mongols, Europeans were ignorant of the existence of the Far East

What is the catalyst that led to the Renaissance?

What is the catalyst that led to the Renaissance?

The Crusades (1095-1291) were the catalyst that led to the Renaissance. The Crusades or the Holy Wars were a series of several military campaigns led by the Catholic Church to take the Holy Land and Jerusalem from the Muslims.
The First Crusade was launched in 1095 by Pope Urban II. It was a major turning point in the expansion of Western power, and was the only crusade to capture Jerusalem.
The Crusades initially started as an appeal to the French knightly class. But it soon turned into a conquest of territory outside of Europe, such as the Fourth Crusade against Constantinople. Although it did not capture Jerusalem, it managed to establish a Roman Christian kingdom there that lasted till 1262. None of the crusades that followed were successful.
But the historic significance of the Crusades was not that it was a series of defeats, but that it brought Europe in contact with the East. Although the original aim of liberating Jerusalem failed to materialize, it opened up a new world and widened the outlook of the Europeans. This provided the base for a cultural rebirth or renaissance

Why is the battle of Hastings important?

Why is the battle of Hastings important?

The King of England, known as Edward the Confessor (1002-1066 AD) was succeeded by his brother-in-law, Harold II, to whom Edward had publicly promised the throne. But this was challenged by William of Normandy, who was Edward’s half brother. William invaded England by crossing the English Channel from Normandy, in the North of France.
Harold failed to disrupt this landing, and both met in battle at Hastings on October 14, 1066 Harold’s infantry proved a poor match for William’s cavalry, which was heavily armed and armoured. Harold had to admit defeat. On Christmas day, William was crowned King of England, and came to be known as William the Conqueror thereafter.
William has gone down in history as the last man to lead a successful invasion of England by force of arms. With this Norman Conquest, England became open to the art and literature of Europe, adapting and adopting the best of European culture

What was the Holy Roman Empire? How was it born?

What was the Holy Roman Empire? How was it born?

Europe had fallen into disunity in the years after Charlemagne’s rule. But Otto I (912 – 973 AD) of Germany emerging as a strong power base, tried to bring unity in the lands that was once part of the vast empire of Charlemagne. Otto’s authority was backed by the Pope’s desire for a strong Northern Europe that would assure peace and order in Italy.


When Pope John XII was at war with the Italian king Berengar, he offered Otto the crown and the title of Holy Roman Emperor, if he could defeat Berengar and unite Italy.


Otto accomplished this, and was crowned on 2 February 962 AD. Thus the idea of a Holy Roman Empire that was born with Charlemagne was reborn with Otto I.


The Holy Roman Empire survived nearly 8 centuries after Otto I. it comprised the present Germany, Austria, Italy, Czech Republic and other nearby territories.


The Empire wielded strength and power until the 15th century and survived at least in name till 1806. As was its intention, the Holy Roman Empire succeeded in bringing political as well as spiritual unity to Europe.

Who was Charlemagne?

Who was Charlemagne?

Charles the Great or Charlemagne, was the son of Pepin the Short, who seized the Frankish kingdom from Childeric, the last of the Merovingian kings. On his death, his kingdom got divided between his two sons, Charles and Carloman. With the death of the latter, Charles became king of all of France. On Christmas day 800 AD, he was crowned as King of Franks and the Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Leo III. This date is often looked upon as the beginning of the Middle Ages.


Charlemagne began his work as an emperor in right earnest with a cross in one hand and a sword in the other. He set right the situation in Europe that was torn by conflict, greed and superstition. He conquered Saxons, Lombards, Magyars and Avars and fought the Moslems in Spain.


At the end of his reign Charlemagne was presiding over an empire that stretched from the Baltic to Spain, and from Britanny to the Lower Danube. This great king was not just a conqueror, but the patron of the arts and letters who encouraged arts and architecture. With his death, the empire passed on to his son, Louis the ‘Pious’, who later divided it between his two sons. In their hands, the empire broke up into pieces, following quarrels

Who invented the concept of zero?

Who invented the concept of zero?

It is interesting that the concept of zero or nothing has had such a great impact on the progress of mankind! Although there is no proof of the identity of genius who discovered this concept, it is accepted that zero was invented in India around the 5th century AD, by Aryabhata, the first great astronomer of India.


From the earliest times, man has tried many different methods to write numbers and count. The Greeks used letters of their alphabet and Egyptians drew appropriate pictures to denote quantities. The Romans devised a complicated system. They used X to represent 10, ‘C’ to mark 100 and M for 1000. The Indian had invented a far better number system but without zero, long before the birth of Christ.


Later, after zero was invented, Arab traders carried to Europe about the year 900 AD. The invention of zero became the turning point in the development of culture and civilization. It made higher Mathematics and elaborate calculations possible.

When did the fall of the Roman Empire begin?

The Roman Empire was one of the greatest that existed. But by the end of the 4th century A D, the Romans began to experience practical difficulties in managing the large empire. Gradually the empire began to disintegrate, falling prey to attacks from tribes such as the Goths, Visigoths, the Vandals and the Franks from Northern Europe.


Early in the 4th century Emperor Constantine concluded that Rome was not safe, and shifted his capital to the city of Byzantium (modern Istanbul), renaming it Constantinople. After his death, his sons squabbled over the empire, resulting in a division into the Eastern Roman Empire based on Constantinople and w Western Roman Empire based in Rome. The Western Roman Empire crumbled under its own weight and was victim to a series of conquests from Alaric, king of the Visigoths in 410 AD and Attila the Hun in 433 AD. When the last Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustulus ascended the throne in 475 AD, he had only a mere shadow of what was once the glorious Roman Empire. When he was taken prisoner by German King Odovacar in 476 AD, the curtains came down on the empire begun by Caesar Augustus, nearly 500 years ago.

When was the burning of Rome started?

When was the burning of Rome started?

The burning of Rome took place in the year 64 AD. This happened during the reign of Nero (37-67 AD) who was a tyrant, weak and completely mad. It is possible that the great fire that burned and destroyed Rome was started under his orders. Even if he had not, Nero is supposed to have stood watching the destruction, while playing the fiddle. The fire raged for six days continuously and at the end of it only less than one third of the city remained. Seizing this opportunity, Nero ordered the building of a new city which turned out to be more beautiful and magnificent than the earlier one. However, he did not live long to enjoy it, as he committed suicide during a revolt that followed.

Who was Julius Caesar?

Who was Julius Caesar?

Julius Caesar was the son of a noble family who entered the Roman Army. He served with distinction, earning the Civic Crown, the highest medal of valour. Upon his return to Rome, he entered politics and became a Consul. He led a successful military expedition to expand the Empire. He pushed the frontiers of the Roman Empire farther than any Roman emperor. He took command of an Army and the next two years, he invaded and laid claim to most of Britain, and crossed the Rhine to fight the Germans.


He returned to Rome as a powerful hero, and came into political conflict with Pompey, another Roman General who held the post of Chief Consul. By law, generals were not allowed to bring their armies into the city of Rome but rather were required to keep them north of the Rubicon River. In 50 BC, Caesar flouted the law, crossed the Rubicon and entered Rome to stage a coup. He deposed Pompey and eliminated the Republic making himself an absolute ruler, in 48 BC. He continued to rule until disgruntled colleagues assassinated him on March 15, 44 BC. By the time of his death, Rome had also become Europe’s –and possibly the world’s-first superpower.

How did the Romans come to super power?

How did the Romans come to super power?

While Rome was founded in 753 BC, it took more than 500 years before the Romans rose to their supremacy. Then they asserted power and influence beyond the Italian peninsula. However, during these 500 years, Rome, the city of the river Tiber, had become a dominant political force in Italy. As it sphere of influence spread outside Italy, Rome would face new and more serious competition than it had, closer to home.


While Greece looked East towards the cradle of civilization and the Persian Empire beyond, the Romans looked West. The major power in the Western Mediterranean was Carthage, a city founded in 814 BC by the Phoenicians. As Rome began to broaden its power it put itself on a collision course with Carthage. The victor in this power struggle would win dominance over the Western Europe, and ultimately, the entire Mediterranean area. This was finally decided over three epic wars known as the Punic wars. It was the Roman victory over the Carthaginian general Hannibal at the battle of Zama in 202 BC, which marked the beginning of the rise of power of the Roman Empire.

Why was the Great Wall of China built?

Why was the Great Wall of China built?

The Great Wall of China built at the command of Emperor Shih Huang Ti, is the greatest example of human effort. Known in China as Wan-Lichang Chen, it was built to form the northern boundary of the Chinese empire. It was about 2400 kms (6400 Kms with all its branches) long, and was four and a half to 12 metres in height. To build it over high mountains and very difficult terrain, the emperor pressed every third man in the kingdom into service. But compared to the amount of human suffering it involved, it was a futile effort.

Who is known as the First Emperor? Why?

Who is known as the First Emperor? Why?

China, in the very early days, was made up of many warring feudal states. By about 221 BC, this period ended with the rise of Chin Dynasty. During this time, the powerful Shi Huang Di, known as the First Emperor, succeeded in uniting China for the first time in history. Although, he is remembered as a despot, Shi Huang Di brought about several reforms that changed the face of China. He introduced a centralized government, conducted a census and standardized the weights and measures and coinage of the country. He is also credited with having begun work on the Great Wall of China. Shi Huang Di’s rule ended with the advent of the Han Dynasty

What is the Archimedes’ principle?

Archimedes was a Greek scientist who studied at the Museum of Alexandria. He had done a lot of research in geometry, hydrostatics and mechanics. His studies and theories were pathbreaking ones because they laid the base for great discoveries for scientists of the future. In fact, they proved to be of great help to Galileo, Newton and others, who made revolutionary discoveries.


Archimedes is renowned for his principle which says that the weight of a solid is equal to the weight of water displaced by it, when immersed in water.


Eureka!


There is an interesting story about how Archimedes discovered his famous principle. It is said that the King of Syracuse in Greece suspected that a jeweler had cheated him. The King asked Archimedes if he could determine if the object was made of pure gold. Archimedes went over the problem in his mind and the answer came suddenly to him one day, while he was in his bath. Excited by his discovery, he is said to have run home without putting on his clothes, shouting ‘Eureka!’ (I have found it!)

Why is the monarchy of Asoka considered enlightened?

Why is the monarchy of Asoka considered enlightened?

In ancient times, kings mostly ruled with an iron hand and were considered omnipotent. They were wee thought to be representatives of Gods, and ruled by divine decree. Yet some kings stand out for their benevolence. One such is Emperor Asoka who ruled Magadha in India from 273 BC to 232 BC. His empire includes almost all of India and what is Bangladesh and Pakistan today.


In 261 BC, he fought the Battle of Kalinga, which was to become a turning point in his life. This bloody war left more than 200000 casualties in its wake. Asoka was shocked and greatly saddened by this sight and decided that victory in war was not worth the price to be paid in terms of human misery. He renounced military conquest as a national policy, and converted to Buddhism. Animal and human sacrifices were banned. Missionaries were sent to all parts of his vast empire, and also to foreign lands to spread the message of non-violence and Buddhism. Sri Lanka was one such country that accepted this re religion as a result of Asoka’s efforts.


Emperor Asoka was also an able ruler, expanding trade, undertaking public works, encouraging arts and establishing institutions that worked for the welfare of his people. From an aggressive ruler, Asoka had become a man with a conscience, and thus, is considered the world’s first truly ‘enlightened’ monarch.

Why is Alexander considered great?

Why is Alexander considered great?

In the 4th century BC, Alexander a Greek general, established an empire that included both Europe and Asia, and stretched from Greece to India. he is popularly known as Alexander the Great, who lived from 356 to 323 BC.


Alexander was the son of Philip of Macedonia, who had brought the whole of Greece under his rule. Succeeding his father at the young age 20, Alexander his short rule of 13 years, was able to build the greatest empire that existed at that time. He defeated Darius II twice to conquer Persia and Mesopotamia. He captured Tyre after a siege of seven months, before invading and capturing Egypt. He pushed on till he reached northern India. Satisfied at last at having conquered the world, he led his warriors home. But he died in Babylon, stricken with fever at the young age of 33.


Apart from the fact that Alexander had established one of the largest empires of all times, the true importance and its greatness lies in yet another aspect. For the first time, there could be a free exchange of ideas between two different cultures. Unlike other conquerors, Alexander was open to the ideas of his conquered people, and freely absorbed them.

Who was Hippocrates?

Who was Hippocrates?

Hippocrates (460-377 BC) was a great physician who lived during the Golden Age of Greece. Modern medicine can trace its root to his ideas.


Living at a time when diseases were treated by which doctors and magicians, Hippocrates was like a doctor of the 20th century. He said while curing the sick, a doctor should ‘consider the nature of humans in general, and of each individual and the characteristics of each disease’. In short his view was that the doctor should look into the whole human mechanism rather than focus on the symptom of a disease. He recommended that ‘exercise strengthens and inactivity wastes’.


Hippocrates did not make many discoveries, and his theory of blood circulation was wrong. But what he did was to formulate the theoretical base and the procedures by which medical science was to develop in the future. In fact, he laid down the framework of modern medical practice.

Hippocrates Oath

The Hippocrates Oath, written by Hippocrates, way back in the 4th century BC, is still respected and recited by doctors the world over. It is the foundation of the modern medical ethics. The tenets contained in it relate to a doctor’s duty to treat anyone, regardless of his social status.

What is the importance of the Golden Age of Greece?

What is the importance of the Golden Age of Greece?

The Golden Age of Greece was from 450 to 322 BC. During this period, there wee many outstanding thinkers, writers and theoreticians who exerted a great influence on Western history.


Among the great minds that lived during this period, three name stand out – Socrates (469 – 399 BC), his student Plato (427 – 347 BC) and Aristotle (384 – 322 BC), who in turn was taught by Plato. Socrates was a witty orator and a brilliant philosopher, and many consider him to be the father of Western philosophy.


Socrates theorized that an ideal government was made up of wise men ruling for the general welfare of the society. Plato elaborated these ideals in his book, ‘The Republic’. Aristotle studied medicine along with philosophy, and he brought a method to the study of the relation between man other aspects of the world in which he lived. Alexander the Great was taught by Aristotle. Along with other great scholars who lived during this Golden Age, these three were largely responsible for formulating the basis of modern Western culture.

Who was Cyrus the Great?

Who was Cyrus the Great?

Cyrus the Persian, later known as ‘the Great’ was one of the greatest warriors of the ancient world. This military genius forged a band of ill equipped men into superb Army, which went on to establish the first truly great empire in civilization. Cyrus first led his men against Astyages of Media (551 BC) and then against Lydia (546 BC), the city of King Croesus whose name even today is synonymous with great wealth. Cyrus then moved to attack Babylon, which was ruled by Nabonidus. Nabonidus had offended the priests of the god Bel Marduk by bringing in other gods. Cyrus arrived at the mighty walls of the great city in 538 BC. After a brief skirmish, Cyrus and his men entered the city without fighting, helped by local priests. Though a conqueror, Cyrus proved to be a just and humane ruler. He respected local customs and religions, and even allowed the long-exiled Jews to leave Babylon and return to Jerusalem